Inta Omri by Oum Kalsoum Essay Example for Free

Inta Omri by Oum Kalsoum Essay Enta Omri is Egyptian singer and songwriter Oum Kalsoums best known work. The song Enta Omri has been revived and reinterpreted many times over the past few decades. Even then, no one can compare to the original recordings of Oum Kalsoum, who was the best singer to come from the Middle East. Many contemporary Western artists and musicians have been significantly influenced by her work. Famous artist known to be admirers of her body of work range from such stars as painter Salvador Dali to rock star Bono. Today, her popularity has not faded and the recordings of her songs continue to sell very well in the Middle East, with about one million records sold each year. The song Enta Omri has significantly influenced Oum Kalsoum as an artist. The lyrics of her subsequent songs followed the theme of Enta Omri, centered on the topics of love, longing for someone, or the loss of a loved one, much like the topics prevalent on country music today. Her musical performances are also very long by todays standards. While the official recording of the song Enta Omri is about an hour, her live performances could last for several hours. The people listening to her songs are mesmerized by Oum Kalsoums vocal range, who had one of the deepest singing voice for females. References: 1. Shira. Inte Omri: You Are My Life. Retreived on November 28, 2008. 2. You Tube. Omm Kalthoum-Inta Omri.Retreived on November 28, 2008. 3. Imeem. Inta Omri by Yahel. Retreived on November 28, 2008. 4. Egypt State Information Service. Umm Kolthoum. Retreived on November 28, 2008. 5. Al-Ahram Weekly. The Voice of Authority. Retreived on November 28, 2008. 6. Al-Ahram. Umm Kuthoum Superstar. Retreived on November 28, 2008. 7. OumKalthoum. org. Oum Kalthoum. Retreived on November 28, 2008. 8. Al-Masriq. Umm Kulthum. Retreived on November 28, 2008.

Fibonacci And The Golden Ratio Mathematics Essay

Fibonacci And The Golden Ratio Mathematics Essay Some aspects of mathematics can be dull and tedious from start to end, much of it however is intriguing and inspiring, when you truly see the beauty and the relevance. This is why I would like to bring to your attention the magic of the Fibonacci numbers. If you have ever looked at a sheet of paper and wondered Why do we use those dimensions? or looked at the leaf or an attractive plant and wondered Why can I never find a four leaved clover? then this may be of some interest. Many of these things are quite interconnected in a way you would not realise, and most of them are connected by the Fibonacci sequence. If I return to one of my original questions Why can I never find a four leaved clover? it seems reasonable, that if you can find 3 leaved clover and 5 leaved clover, you would be able to find the more symmetrical 4 leaved clover. Why then is it so rare to find one? If we look closely at other examples of nature, we can perhaps find the answer. If you were to search through your average garden, you would find the majority of flowers have 5 petals, many have 3 or 8 or more but if you look closely, you will always find more of certain numbers, compared to others. These numbers just so happen to be part of the Fibonacci sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89 Although, why does nature choose these numbers over others? In addition, the connection between the real world and this sequence does not just end there; it can be found almost everywhere we look: spirals on a snail shell, the core of an apple, geometry, art, architecture, the stock market and even the human body. So what makes it so useful? Why is it so special? My project intends to answer these questions and along the way discover new applications and more examples. I will be delving into the mathematical concepts behind the nature we see every day, the regular objects we rely on, the human body and the stock market. I shall also investigate aspects of the golden ratio and how the Fibonacci sequence is related to this. The Fibonacci sequence is found by adding the previous term to the term before that. For example: 0, 1, 1, 2, ? 0 +1=1 1+1=2 1+2=3 and so on.. Overall equation for next term: a_(n+1)= a_n+ a_(n-1) This creates an infinite sequence of numbers and is known as a recursive sequence, as each number is a function of the previous two. Also, as the sequence progresses the ratio between each consecutive term seems to converge upon a single number. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89 2/1=2 3/2=1.5 5/3=1.667 8/5=1.6 13/8=1.625 21/13=1.615 F=1.618034 Eventually, it converges to 1.618034 This number has a specific interest to many mathematicians and is known as the golden ratio. It is also useful when we consider where it is found. If you were to take your hand and bend the index finger as full as possible, measuring the dimensions of the rectangle created, you would find what is known as a golden rectangle. The average height (of the intermediate phalange) would be around 3cm and the average length (of the proximal phalange) would be 5cm. As we can see from left this creates a shape of ratio 5:3 or simply 1.667:1 (the golden ratio). This is only one of the many examples of golden ratio in the body. There are many, many more some of which have been known for hundreds of years (see Da Vinci s Vitruvian man right). Also, the golden ratio is not just confined to the human body. Rather than cutting and apple from pole to pole, if you were to slice in a horizontal fashion, you would find a simple five pointed star. However, it is much more complex than meets the eye. If you were to take the distance AB as 1 unit, the distance AC would be 1.618, the golden ratio. But why does this happen, what make this ratio so efficient and so appealing, and why has nature adopted it? History of the Sequence and Ratio From the start of the Palaeozoic era, 400 million years ago, animals of divine proportions have been roaming the earth. The most notable is the nautilus shell (right) which follows a logarithmic spiral based on the golden ratio in rectangles. The earliest written documentation of a special ratio belongs to the Rhind papyrus. A scroll about 6 metres long and 1/3 of a metre wide, it is one of the first mathematical handbooks. It was discovered by Scottish Egyptologist Henry Rhind in 1858 and is believed to have been written by Egyptian scribe, Ahmes in 1650 BC. He is believed to have copied it, from a document 200 years older, dating the first notation of the sequence to 1850 BC. However, the pyramids, built 1000 years previous, show many examples of the use of golden ratio, although many scholars believe it is merely coincidence created by the need for right angles. Between the 6th and 3rd centuries, Greek philosophers, mathematicians and artists used and analysed the golden ratio. It is visible in pentagons and pentagrams throughout the period and was attributed to Pythagoras and his followers. It was used as part of his symbol (a pentagram with a pentagon within) and it was he, who first suspected the proportion was the basis of the human figure. Plato also studied the ratio naming it most blinding of mathematical relations, the key to the physics of the cosmos. and from his lectures so did Eudoxus, whose work was used by Euclid in his book of elements II. Here he writes one of the first definitions A straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio when, as the whole line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to the less. During his work he creates problems based on the ratio in pentagons, equilateral triangles and some of his prepositions show the ratio to be an irrational number. The first person to apply numbers and sequence to construct the golden ratio was Leonardo of Pisa (full name, Leonardo Pisano Bigollo, lived 1180-1250). He was the son of an Italian businessman from the city of Pisa and grew up within a trading colony in North Africa. At the time, Italy and the majority of Europe was using the Roman numeral system of counting, this was quite complex and meant most calculations required an abacus. While growing up in Algeria he learned the Hindu-Arabic system of calculation (the familiar 0, 1, 2). After returning to Pisa as a young man in the thirteenth century, he recognised the superiority of this new structure and began to spread it throughout Europe. He did this through his book the Liber Abaci (book of abacus) published in 1202 under the nickname, Fibonacci (a contraction of filius Bonacci, meaning son of Bonacci). To explain the system he used the Fibonacci sequence in his famous immortal rabbits problem (see next section of more detail). This allowed him to explain addition, subtraction and division using the Hindu- Arabic system and in turn allowed him to popularise it through Western Europe. Due to this he was later known as the founder of western mathematics and the greatest European mathematician of the middle ages. He introduced concepts such as algebra, geometry, the common fraction and even the square root symbol. He also considered the possibility of negative numbers and related it to merchant problems which began with a debt. There was very little significant work done upon the topic until 1509, when Luca Pacioli published De Divina Proportione with the help of illustrations by Leonardo Da Vinci, who later used this within his famous work the Vitruvian man . In 1611, German astronomer Johann Kepler discovered the numbers within his own work on planetary motion saying as 5 is to 8, so is 8 to 13, practically, and as 8 is to 13, so is 13 to 21 almost in relation to the rings around Saturn. It was later found that the ratio of mean distance between planets was in fact the golden ratio. Over the next two centuries many scholars investigated the sequence, deriving formulas and functions. In 1830, A. Braun first applied the sequence to the arrangement of bracts on a pinecone. A decade later and J.P.M. Binet derived a formula for the value of any Fibonacci number without the need for the previous two. nth number= 1/(v5) ((1+v5)/2)^n- 1/(v5) ((1-v5)/2)^n In 1920, Oxford Botanist A.H Church discovered spirals on sunflower heads corresponded to the numbers in Fibonacci s rabbit problem (see next section). This discovery inspired botanists to look for Fibonacci numbers elsewhere, teams then began to realise that many phyllotactic ratio s are golden ratio s (see flower patterns and primorda). In the 1930 s, Joseph Schillinger consciously composed a piece of music using Fibonacci intervals and Ralph Elliot began predicting the stock market in Fibonacci periods. By the 1960 s, a lively interest had been aroused and to this day mathematicians around the world are investigating the uses and problems connected with the sequence. The Immortal Rabbits Problem To explain his mathematical theorems, Fibonacci liked to create problems to allow his audience to use the maths he tried to describe. The immortal rabbits problem is one such challenge. It was first described within his famous Liber abaci and was later adopted as an explanation for the Fibonacci sequence. Imagine if you will a large enclosure and within it a pair of rabbits. The immortal rabbit problem asks if there is one pair to begin with, how many rabbits will there be after a certain length of time if: Each rabbit is immortal They stay within their pairs They breed once per month and produce a pair each time Each new pair takes 1 month to mature, and then breeds to form a new pair the next month January, we start with 2 rabbits, these then take one month to breed.. February, there is now one adult pair and a new born pair of immature rabbits. March, the new born pair have now matured, and the adult pair have reproduced April, the new born pair from March have now developed, the first pair reproduce again and the second pair reproduce for the first time.. The pattern continues until Month Pairs of mature rabbits Pairs of immature rabbits Overall Number of Pairs January 1 0 1 February 1 1 2 March 2 1 3 April 3 2 5 May 5 3 8 June 8 5 13 July 13 8 21 August 21 13 34 September 34 21 55 October 55 34 89 November 89 55 144 December 144 89 233 After a while, we begin to notice a pattern, the total number of rabbits in any given month is a Fibonacci number. This is because the total is formed from the number of immature rabbits (the same as the number of mature rabbits the last month) and the number of mature rabbits (the total from the previous month) i.e. a_(n+1)= a_n+ a_(n-1) Another interesting note is the rate of growth in the population. 2/1 = 2 3/2= 1.5 5/3= 1.666 8/3= 1.625 . this continues until we reach a_(n+1)/a_n =1.618034.. i.e. the Golden Ratio. Flower patterns and primorda As we have seen in the introduction, nature has applied the Fibonacci sequence and golden ratio from the number of petals on a flower, to the core of an apple and the spirals of a sunflower. On the face of it, this seems to be a fortunate and appealing coincidence, but since the 1920 s botanist have searched and found more and more of these coincidences . This leads us to believe that perhaps, they have a much deeper and more interesting meaning for the life of your average plant. Maybe these numbers and ratios were chosen for a reason. Even from Egyptian times it was noted that most flowers had 5 petals, the rest by majority also have Fibonacci numbers of petals. Also, if you examine the many plant stems you will find the regular pattern or 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 stems at standard heights. Another interesting phenomenon, and one which may reveal the mystery of why plants behave so regularly in conjunction with the Fibonacci sequence, are the spirals shown by plants. Look carefully at the picture of the pineapple left. As you move from the top right to the bottom left you may begin to see a set of spirals, curving round the pineapple in a diagonal fashion. Upon closer inspection you may also find a similar on from top left to bottom right and less obvious, from top to bottom. If we count the number of spirals we (fortunately for this topic) seem to find only Fibonacci numbers. In fact in a study of over 2000 pineapples not a single on differed from the pattern. The same principle applies to the pinecone. Upon close inspection, you will find two different spirals, one vertically and another horizontally, all of which come in Fibonacci numbers. A separate study to that of the pineapples showed that this was the case 99% of the time. The sunflower however, has its own unique spiral display. Starting from the centre and continuing in a clockwise fashion to the outside, the number of spirals again adds to a Fibonacci number. Although, if you look in the opposite (anticlockwise) direction you will find yet another spiral and adding the number of these gives the consecutive Fibonacci number. The majority of the time this is the case, however from time to time there are variations; with larger sunflowers the number of spirals can be double Fibonacci numbers (i.e. 2, 4, 6, 10, 16, 26.). These spirals may be interesting and attractive to look at, but hold much more value than just aesthetics; they allow us to show just why Fibonacci numbers are so widely used in nature and give us an insight into how nature uses maths at its very core. To understand the maths behind the growth of plants we must look deep into the way it grows. As the plant grows taller the interesting components (i.e. petals, sepals, stamens, leaves) all grow from small clumps of tissue called primorda. As these begin to grow they aim to have the largest distance between leaves as possible, this means they have the maximum amount of space and light to grow, ultimately making the plant stronger and more likely to survive. This distance has been decided through evolution to allow the maximum about of light to hit the plant and it turns out this maximum point of efficiently is related to the golden ratio. It just so happens that the Golden angle is the angle one golden ratio away from the starting position. 360 1.618.. 582.5 i.e. 582.5 -360 = 222.5 away clockwise (or 137.5 anticlockwise). As they grow at their angles the leaves have enough light and space to grow. However, when the 6th leaf begin to grow the angle means it is only 32.5 from the first, this leaves it in the shade meaning it is less likely to grow and develop; this is the reason many plants use the number 5 in some areas (i.e. in the number of petals) as the 6th would have less room and is less likely to grow. Sometimes called the phyllotactic ratio, the connection between this and efficiency in plants does not just end there. If we take ourselves back to the sunflower and its spirals we can see that this also has connections to the same ratio. As it begins to grown from the centre outwards each primorda (and therefore each seed head) grows on golden angle away from the previous. As the ratios between consecutive Fibonacci numbers are approximations to the golden ratio (and therefore used to create approximations to the golden angle) we begin to see them within the spirals. This is the main reason Fibonacci numbers are present in so many places; they form the best approximations of the golden ratio. Although, the actual number of spirals that arises depends upon the size of the seed head and slight variations in the rate at which the primorda migrate away from the tip of the growing shoot. As we saw from the rotations in plant leaves above, the golden angle is used to give the most space and therefore the most light. In the seed head however this is not a problem so why has evolution adapted to use it? The answer to this was first discovered by Professor H. Vogel in 1979. He noticed that using the golden angle allowed the seed head to pack together with hardly any missing space. This meant it was very efficient as more seeds could fit in a small area and also much stronger. In turn it meant there would be more seeds and better chance of offspring. This was later supported by French physicists Yves Couder and Stephan Douady, who found the choice of angle the natural consequence of the dynamics of growing a plant shoot . They stated that each primorda gets pushed into the largest available space, so they pack more efficiently, making the golden angle the most likely choice. They also discovered that the next best choice for packing an angle created by a second very similar sequence called the anomalous series (4, 7, 11, 18, 29). After inspection of more spirals and more plant this was found to be the 2nd most common choice after the Fibonacci sequence. Overall, nature has evolved and adapted to use Fibonacci numbers and the golden ratio they approximate, as it gives the most efficient method for survival. Over the years this had been pondered by many people and its frequency in nature has been described as many to be proof of intelligent design and higher power . Shapes of the Golden ratio Although undeniably stunning, the sources of the golden ratio and Fibonacci numbers in nature are only half the applications of these phenomena in the real world. As humans, along with the rest of nature, are hotwired to apply the golden proportions, some of the human applications are some of the most remarkable. As a species we are attracted to the shapes they make and therefore adapt it to the structures we built, the way we think and the art we create. One of the most common shapes is that of the golden rectangle. It is formed from a ratio of length to width of 1.168 : 1 (i.e. the golden ratio). This alone is not that interesting, but remove a square with the same width and height as the width of the golden rectangle (a square ratio 1:1) and you are left with another rectangle. If you take the measurements of this you once again find the ratio 1.168 : 1 the golden rectangle. Repeat the process and the same happens again and again and again; removing a square ratio 1:1 leaves a smaller golden rectangle. The pattern continues indefinitely and is known in mathematics as a fractal (a geometric pattern that is repeated at every scale). Look at most regular paper sizes, credit cards and company logo s you will find an abundance of golden rectangles. However its man-made applications are not its only uses, it can be applied to create another, much more stunning shape the logarithmic spiral. Visually, it can be described as a long, slow spiral and is known as a logarithmic or equiangular spiral. It is known as this as each radii from the centre intercepts the curve at exactly the same angle. It is created by constructing an arc from the furthest corner of each square in the golden rectangle to the opposing corner of that square. The pattern continues and repeats the further you zoom toward the centre making this yet another Fibonacci fractal. The most stunning example of this is the chambered nautilus (see the image of its shell right). As it grows it must produce more room within its shell, while keeping its original shape. To do this it adds a chamber larger than its previous, with each radii intercepting the curve at the same angle (remaining equiangular), keeping the original shape. There are also numerous other examples including; a rams horn, a galaxy spiral, a sea horse and many more. Last but not least, the pentagon and pentagram are found to have Fibonacci connections. These shapes have interested humans for many years and have been the insignia of many religious and political groups. The explanation for its popularity however lies with our desire to search for the golden ratio. From the diagram (left), we can see how the ratio 1:F connects the length of the side of the pentagon to the distance between corners of the pentagram. There is however another ratio, the distance between a vertex and the corner of the inscribed pentagon is 1: 1/F. These ratios mean that many pentagons in nature, art and architecture have Fibonacci numbers present in the lengths. Overall, we can see how many of the regular shapes found both in nature and modern life have been dictated by the Fibonacci sequence. There are thousands of examples of these proportions in the real world and more regular shapes than have been divulged here. As interesting as finding them in the real world is, it doesn t come close the intrigue which lies behind the way we can use them to our own advantage. Art and Architecture It is said that renaissance art was inspired by a sense of beauty and proportion . It seems fitting therefore that the dimensions for such art would lie in the ratio s and sequences of the most elaborate and efficient set of numbers known to maths. The use of the series in art has however been known long before this period with Luca Pacioli stating without mathematics there is no art upon the completion of his work with Leonardo Da Vinci on De Divina Proportione (you may recall this from History of the Sequence). Legend also has it that long before this, Greek mathematician Eudoxus studied human affinity to this proportion by asking a group of his followers to divide sticks into the ratios they found most pleasing. This experiment was later adapted by German psychologist, Gustav Fechner in the 1860 s. He took a series of ten rectangles of different proportion and asked subjects to choose which they found to be the most pleasing, 76% of all participants chose the three rectangles closest to the golden rectangle. It is clear from this then that we have known for many years that the golden or divine proportion has visually pleasing qualities and unknown to us, it can be found almost everywhere we look as a direct result. One of the earliest and most obvious sightings of this was in the Great Pyramids of 4700BC. Here F is found extensively in its construction but most scholars now believe that this is more coincidence than design, it is however interesting to note that the exact height of the structure is 5813 inches (numbers of the Fibonacci sequence. 1,400 years later and the Tomb of Ramses IV was built, this was later discovered to have several approximations to the golden rectangle as its centre. It had been constructed with a double square (approximation to the golden rectangle, a golden rectangle and a double golden rectangle. The first people to consciously apply the maths of the golden ratio to their art and architecture were the Greeks. The Parthenon of Greece 440BC is the single finest example of this. The whole structure fits within the golden rectangle proportions as well as each pair of columns and even the sections of sculpture that run above the columns. The designer, Phidias was said to be the greatest and most prolific sculptor of his age. His work was dependent upon extensive use of the golden proportion. Its abundance in his work later meant the ratio was named Phi in his honour. Many artefacts of the era from urns and vases to Afroditas sculpture (right) and temples all extensively used the proportion. It is believed that as Pythagoras linked it to the human body (see next section) it was generally associated with the divine and beautiful, making many associate it with the Gods and good. One of the most interesting instances of the Fibonacci sequence at work is in the operation of the stock market.

Richness And Density Of Information Information Technology Essay

Richness And Density Of Information Information Technology Essay E-commerce is a method of trading via internet. This came into practice and became popular after the people are aware of the advantages in using internet to shop for their needs. The term e-commerce can be defined as a means of modern technology to sell goods and services through a web portal to deal with the needs of customers and traders to minimize maintenance charges, development cost as well as the delivery to the customers. (Ritendra Goel, 2007). It can also be called as e-marketing and is one of the fastest developing industries in the present world. It is gaining its importance as the shopping is just a click away instead of the traditional way of going to the stores. It also contains the exchange of information to make easy about funding and payment options of the business dealings. A major percentage of e-commerce is done electronically for essential things like an access to premium content of companies. Online sellers are called as e-tailers and online retail which is also known as e-tail. Approximately all large retailers contain this e-marketing on internet. E-commerce carried out among businesses is known as Business to Business (B2B). This B2B could be open to various users in the aspects like product exchange or limited to particular products, pre-qualified members, public or private e-markets etc. E-commerce can also be applicable to customers and businesses, moreover it is referred to as Business to Customer (B2C). Amazon.com is one of the leading website of such kind. (Steven N. Kalpan and Luis Garicano, 2006). Unique characteristics of E-commerce These days, e-commerce is considered as a buzz word. Many of the users promote websites, affiliate marketing and SEO and other things, however their aim is to gather the clients and sell the online services or products of the corresponding company. Electronic medium is the main tool available to purchase the online products. Following are the considerable characteristics of e-commerce (E-Commerce, 2010): Ubiquity: In conventional commerce, the global market is a physical place where all the users visit to transact. For instance, radio and television are normally directed to motivate the consumers to visit the places to purchase the products. E-commerce is ubiquitous since it is present everywhere during all the times. E-commerce releases the marketplace from being constrained to a physical space and allows shopping the users from their desktop or laptops. Hence, the outcome is specified as market space. From the consumer point of view, ubiquity reduces the transactional costs. In order to perform, one does not require spending their money and time travelling to their nearer markets. More clearly, the ubiquity of e-commerce lessens the cognitive energy which is needed to complete a mission. Global Reach: Generally e-commerce is a technology which allows the commercial transactions to national and cross cultural boundaries extremely more effectively and conveniently when compared to conventional commerce. Hence, the possible market size of electronic merchants is approximately equal to the worlds online population size. Universal Standards: The unseal characteristic of e-commerce technology is the technological standards of Internet and hence the technological standards for carrying out e-commerce are generally the universal standards these are shared by all worldwide online users. Interactivity: Dissimilar to the commercial technologies of the present generation, there are possible ways of interactivity through telephone. Hence the technologies of e-commerce are interactive enabling the two-way communication among the consumers and merchants (E-Commerce, 2010). Richness and Density of information: Internet immensely increases the data density. Quality and total amount of data is available to the market participants, merchants and consumers. The technologies of e-commerce lessens the data collection, communication, storage and the handling costs. Simultaneously, these technologies enhance the timeliness and accuracy of data, enabling data more important and useful than ever before. Hence the data becomes cheaper, with higher quality and available in plenty. Richness of data refers to the content and complexity of a message. Personalization: The technologies of e-commerce allow personalization. Online merchants can aim their marketing notification to particular individuals by altering the message to an individuals name, their interests and previous purchases. The e-commerce technology also enables the customization. Online merchants can regulate the service or product based according to the prior behavior or users preferences. With the use of e-commerce technologies, it is easier for the merchants to recognize the online consumers and utilize the data more efficiently than ever before. Merchants can utilize this data to enhance the new data asymmetries, develop their capability to charge premium prices, brand products for high quality services and divide the marketplace into never-ending groups, sub-groups and everyone getting different prices based on their account history (E-Commerce, 2010). Research on E-Commerce The online transactions using the e-commerce are very high in the year 2006 with hundred billion dollars in United States of America i.e., ten percent of the years total domestic market which shows the increasing trends in online shopping. Almost 33% of the people doing online shopping are relaying on the search engines for their needs. But a characteristic feature of the online shopping trends that people believe in the word of mouth of others when it comes in selecting the best website for online shopping or of the company than the results found through the search engine. Before starting an e-commerce or business through website, there is a need for the firms to analyze the uses and suitability for their products or service which are being offered to customers. In the present market, the most common items being purchased online are Books, Cloths, perfumes, mobile, some of the grocery and latest technology products. So firms must recognize the areas in which e-commerce can be implemented unlike implying on all segments of business. They must decide before implementing electronic commerce in business dealings. This will enable the firms to adopt appropriate strategies to utilize the existing resources that are available in the company. While doing the research, it is found that e-commerce business is available for all the small to large businesses based on the brands or products. However, there are very few websites which got integrated with different brands or shops or products but the thing is only integration is with respect to the products like all the super markets shopping at one place or different mobile shops at one place but there was no website which could integrate irrespective of the category. When browsed online, it was noticed that most of them are very slow and didnt had good look and feel. Also, no security was provided to the customer details or card details. Hence, it resulted in designing the e-commerce website with the title iStore sounds like Internet Store. The project is a web application for users to browse and purchase different products from different shops or brands of their choice using the present upcoming technology known as Adobe Flex Builder and also a tool called Xampp which got the different servers and database integrated in one tool. The project is divided into two modules one is for admin side and the other is for user side. The admin side consists of different operations like adding stores, managing store, adding products under different categories with respect to the stores etc., and on the user side we got the features like viewing the products, adding them to the cart, checkout with fully secured features for card payments, login and logout etc. Mainly inspired by the online shopping business have determined to develop the solution for e-commerce using the latest technology in order to provide rich user interface , user friendly navigation and secured payment options. Features of e-commerce: Any Portal with the below features can be a e-shop. Categories: Generally the online stores have different categories like Books, Antiques, Baby products, Arts, Industrial and Business, Photo and Camera, Vehicles and Parts, Boats, Cars, PDAs and Mobile Phones, Shoes and Accessories, Clothing, Electronics, Toys, Jewelry, Computers and Networking, Dolls and Bears, Crafts, Movies and DVDs, Beauty and Health, Home and Garden, Music and Instruments, Watches, Pet Supplies, Glass and Pottery, Specialty Services, Real Estates, Sport Memo, Sporting Goods, Tickets, Stamps, Hobbies and Travel, Games, and etc. Online users can browse the above products to view and purchase the products. Products: The website enables the user to browse different product based on the categories. Accordingly, the products will be displayed with brief descriptions like price and name along with thumbnail images. Product Details: The complete details of the product can be viewed by the users by just clicking the on their desired product to see the product description, bigger image and video of the product and if the customer like the product, the customer can directly add the product to the cart.. Shopping Cart: E-commerce provides all the solutions for the online users. The e-commerce website generally specializes in business to consumer, business to business, Web Stats, Inventory Management and e-accounting. The websites of e-commerce are totally equipped with IP Fraud checking and ecommerce security. Hence, providing all the shopping cart features like enabling the users to add or remove the products to the shopping cart. The amount to be paid can be viewed by the customer on the cart panel. Login: Login page is provided so that user can get his desired products. Once the customer finishes the shopping they needs to login for the payment options which enables the security feature. If the customer is not a registered user, then customer has an option called New user? Register here to register himself. Once the registration is finished, he can complete the shopping. Registration : Registration form is provided so that the users can register themselves before purchasing their desired products. Here, the new user is intended to register with the website for finishing the shopping. Based on the details like User name, password, retype password ,e-mail id etc. to finish the registration. Payment Type : Once the customer is logged in he can pay the bill by two options like pay with cash or pay with card. Confirmation: Finally, the users are provided with the checkout product list for billing purpose. This process of checkout requires the Users to login in order to track their order. Admin: The site administrator has been provided with the admin panel to manage the stores and the store administration has been provided with the admin panel so as to manage the portal content such as products, categories, etc. Business Analysis: A business can be defined as an organisation or industry or online service that provides services like selling or buying the goods providing career to others. Any Business results either in profits and losses. To start a new business there is a need for good planning and organising, nevertheless research. Now-a-days business is not constrained to an organization or an industry but is boundless to the whole world considering e-business as an example. Online business is booming everywhere as it changes the way the people do their business using the internet with just a click without effecting other facility. Any business needs a strategy i.e., scope and direction to maintain the business for long term and to have good customers. Revenue: Any Business needs a revenue i.e., money which can be received from selling products or services. The total revenue for any company is calculated using the formula Total Revenue = Selling Price per unit *Number of units Sold For example if a company sales a single item for  £1.10 with a profit of  £0.40 than its revenue is ( £1.10 * 1)  £1.10 with a profit of  £0.40. Similarly for 10 items it would be ( £1.10 * 10) is  £11.00 would be the total revenue with a profit of  £4.00 i.e., profit is calculated as Profit = Total Revenue Total cost If the Revenue is greater than Total cost than it is profit and if revenue is less than total cost than it is loss. In the present project iStore the business gets the revenue from Once the store is registered, the store is provided with a 15days free trial and thereafter if the stores want to continue the store is charged particular amount. For every product sold from any store the iStore gets 5-10% of profit from the cost of item sold. User part got the advertising banner for advertising products or stores, which is one of the sources of revenue. For the delivery of the products the customer is charged  £3 for normal delivery and  £7.99 for the express delivery. In this business everything is insured like the products being sold, Equipment used like vehicles used for delivered .An insurance police will be provided to the company and also the employees. Methodolgy : This part of the document gives the information about the technologies used to develop the project and the technologies being used are compared with the other technologies avaliable in the market to show how good is the technology we are using. Background : The web designing projects are developed using different tools and technologies with a database. In general, a web desinging can be developed using the technologies like asp,jsp,java. Dot net, PHP, mxml, and xml etc and there are different databses like Oracle, SQL , MySQL etc. But, for the e-commerce application being developed uses PHP, Mxml , CSS and the database My SQL providing the customers to have a good look and security with easy navigation. Technology Assessment : Web Servers : Any Website is placed on a computer known as a webserver and this servers are always connected to the internet . Every websever is connected to the internet and is been given with a unique address which is a series of four numbers between 0 to 255. The range would be from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 . For Example 68.178.101.200 . Mainly there are four webservers in the market Apache HTTP Server : Apache web server is developed by Apache Software Foundation and it is the most popular web server used world wide . More than 60% of the web server machines use the Apace web server which is an open source software. The great thing of the Apache web server is it can be used or installed on almost all the operating systems like Linux,Unix, Windows ,FreeBSD, Mac OS X and more. Internet Information Services (IIS) : IIS is a web server from Microsoft it has got very high performance. IIS web servers are designed to run on windows NT/2003 and 2003 servers as this comes bundled with Windows NT/2003 and 2003. And even new version of IIS are avaliable for windows new versions. Lighttpd : The Lighttpd is a web server that is avaliable free and is distributed with the FreeBSD operating system and is pronounced lightly. As like Apache it is also a open source software which can run on the different operating systems like Windows, Mac OS X , Linux and Solaries. It got the features like fast, secure and consumes very less CPU power. Jigsaw : Jigsaw(W3Cs server) is also a open source software and avaliable free of cost and can be used on different platforms like Linux, Windows ,Unix, Free BSD, Mac OS X etc, and it is been developed in Java even than it can run CGI scripts and PHP programs. It comes with the World Wide Web association. Conclusion : Considering the features of the different servers available, I finalized to use Apache web server as it is most popular open source software and most of the hosting providers provided apache hosting. Web Application Scripting Tools: Any web application is developed using the scripting tools like PHP, ASP , JSP or Pyton for creating web pages. Benefits of PHP over other Scripting Tools PHP Hypertext Processor is a web programming language on server-side which can be embedded into HTML (Hyper Text Mark-up Language). The uses and benefits of PHP are extensive that includes any sort of server functionalities like taking the inputs from the user and manipulating and displaying the outputs. PHP is considered to be a platform independent as it runs on both UNIX and Windows servers thus it is considered to be more accessible than Windows (ASP). This scripting language is gaining its hold in the programming area of development. This is another language in the slot of object oriented language which even has speed on Linux server which is useful to build large and complex web application. PHP is a useful programming and scripting language as it is easy to integrate with the given web pages and allows for the use of advanced programming structures in the development. Another main advantage of PHP compared to other scripting languages is that it easily and very well interfaces with MySQL which is a popular type of online database. Another add-on point of PHP is that it is an Open Source code as it is available public for free whilst the source code for ASP.net and other language based product cannot be obtained. With all these reasons PHP is considered to be relatively cheap and best programming and scripting language for the open source products. As it is an open source programming language the code can be shared between the developers without any reflexes. This indeed leads to the stage where the developers can rely on each other for using the characteristic of reusability of the pieces of the code which can be termed as functions, classes instead of developing the common piece of code every time and reinventing the wheel. This scenario will reduce the production time vividly. Some of the benefits of PHP over other open source languages like JAVA are as follows: PHP is considered as more swift development tool in comparison with JAVA if once the developer once get used to the process of developing the simple web pages. There is no particular IDE for the development of PHP applications. There are some tools like Komodo for checking the syntax at real time process and debugging. It is not necessary to restart the server whenever it is required to update a PHP file unlike does in JAVA. Even this is not exact problem with JSPs but when it comes to Java Servlets the web server will try to unload all the classes from the memory and reload it as and when requested. These are some of the advantages of PHP over some other scripting languages and some other open source developing languages. Therefore I have chosen PHP for the project development process as it is open source, lightweight and rapid in comparison with other technologies like MS.NET Database : Any e-commerce needs to have a database for storing the data of the registered users, products, etc. In market, there are lot of database systems available like Oracle, MySQL , SQL Server etc. Benefits of My SQL over other Database Major database systems that are used in the present web developing systems are Microsoft MS SQL server and My SQL. These two systems are similar with respect to the general data manipulations some of the features like supporting the primary key operations, key indices which enables the user to speed up the operations and queries and restrain input. In addition to this these two systems Microsoft offer some form of support to XML formats. But the advantages of MySQL over the other start with its nature of open-source system which is not present in MS SQL server as it is a closed one and a build on proprietary structure. MySQL is an open storage and extensible database engine that offers multiple variations such as Berkeley DC, InnoDB, Heap and My ISAM while these options cannot be seen in MS SQL server as it offerings are limited only to a Sybase-derived engine. MySQL has major advantage of integrating impeccably with any number of web designed technologies and programming languages which keeps it over the MS SQL server. MySQL is also considered to be ahead in terms of its compatibility which works better than any Microsoft products. MySQL is considered as a robust, fast database with relatively good feature set. If any project is designed to be portable then its pretty good to implement on My SQL. It also offers a very good admin security and a good database system to implement. Postgre SQL is one of the other open s ource relational database management system which matches the standards and operations of SQL server and also runs on different platforms. In spite of all these features it is a slow due to its advanced features and becomes complicate to use by the developer in a large web developing projects (Mike Jewson, 2006). Due to these advantages, MySQL has been chosen for the database management system in this project. User Interface : Benefits of Adobe Flex over Silverlight Adobe flex is an open source structure which runs in adobe flash player to create rich internet applications (RIAs). It merges the functionality of desktop applications with that of the accessibility of web applications. This tool will allow for the speed prototyping of difficult web applications. The aim of flex is to understand the Adobes goal for its suite of products. And adobes goal is to influence the wide number of designers who already know with adobe design tools. Whereas for Microsoft Silverlights goal is to influence the Windows Presentation foundation framework (WPF), the .NET framework and also its ascertained developer base. WPF is used to present a visual front end for all windows foundational applications. Flex has a wide selection of out of the box elements like DataGrid, Tree and Panel which are employed to deliver the view of a Flex RIA. These flex applications are collected into Flash bytecode and it runs in Flash Player. It also influences Flash transitions and animations and supports media streaming and data push. Flex applications programming is done in combination of MXML and Action Script languages. When it comes to Silverlight this type of programming is not possible (Chris Giametta, 2009). Adobe flex events are more spontaneous than the Silverlight to implement. This can be defined as static resources in App.Xaml and compiled into the application. These two tools provide XML based mark-up language and with convenient methods for designing controls. But there are some differences which are practically proved between these two tools-Flexs MXML and Silverlights XAML. Prior tool is assembled straight into Action Script modules. If Flex builder is used, then developer could set a breakpoint directly in MXML and wait for it to be performed. After breakpoint is reached the object and its related property assessments can be examined. Silver lights XAML is gathered into common runtime object code. This creates problems with debugging. This tool is less compact and is more flexible than flex (David Roossien, 2009). Technical Analysis: iStore project is divided into two modules the first module is Admin which got two things iStore admin and store admin and the second module is User . User Features: Home Login Categories Featured Stores Products Product Description About Us Contact Us Shopping Cart Check Out Payment Options ( Card or Cash) My Orders Search Logout Store Admin features: Login Manage Orders Products Add new Products Logout iStore Admin Features : Login Manage Orders Manage Stores Add new stores Manage Categories Add new categories Customers Change Password Logout Application Analysis Design: Application Implementation: iStore project has been implemented using PHP, Adobe Flex Builder and My SQL. This project is divided into two modules such as Admin module and User module. Admin Module This module got two categories iStore Admin and Store Admin. iStore Admin Login Page:  Here the admin users login in to the site using the login details provided by the iStore team. If the admin enters wrong user name and password then user will be prompted to re-enter the correct user name and password. When the login details are successful the webpage redirects to the Home page which is Manage Order. Once the admin is logged in he got the permissions to manage the stores, categories or change password as the admin is given with some default password. Manage Stores:  Admin is responsible to manage the stores i.e., adding the new stores are editing the stores that is deleting the existing the stores ,or by clicking on the products link in the product of the table which is displayed in the form admin can view all the available products under a particular store name and can manage the products as well. Manage icon in the manage field of the table is used to edit the required attribute with respect to the products and the stores in the site. Delete icon is used to delete the stores which are no more required or no more posting the products onto the site. On the top right corner of the table there is link called Add New Store through which the admin can enter new store and register them accordingly.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Add new Store:  This form is accessed by the admin user to add new stores so that the user can post the new products or services into the site by creating the new store. Here in this form it is required to give the store name logo, image of the store and branch of the store with a user name and password so that the store admin can login to add the products, when the iStore admin wants to add a new store. Here it is even required to mention the status of the store whether it is active or inactive by selecting check box given in the form. The Store logo is displayed on the home page of the user . Manage categories:  This form is used to manage the products that are posted onto the site. This is done by the admin user to manage the products and its arability on the site. Here by clicking on the icon in manage field of the table category details can be edited according to their requirement and specifications. If the admin wants to delete the field admin can do that by just clicking on that delete icon. On the top right corner of the table there is link call Add New Category through which the admin can enter the new category or the products type into the site. Thus the product type or the categories can be managed by the admin through this form in the site.       New Category:  This form is sued to enter the new categories of the products into the site. When the admin clicks on the top link in the manage categories form the form will be redirected to this page. In the form admin can enter the details of the new category they want to enter into the site and even have to mention the status of the category by selecting the check box active in the form to keep that particular category in active state and once save button is clicked the category is saved. And the page will be redirect to the list of the categories page. Admin Categories Page In this page the list of categories will be displayed and there will be option for the admin to update and delete the category. On the right corner there is a link called add categories if this is clicked then it will redirect to the new category page. Admin Add new Products In this page the admin can add the product providing the details that are required for adding a new product. The fields in that page are selection of the category giving the product name, image , video , cost and description of the product. And there is a check box called Active if it is checked then that particular product will be displayed on the product page under selected category and if it is not checked then the product will not be displayed. After that admin just needs to click on the save button. Then the page is redirect to the list of products under that particular store. Even the store admin can also add the new products if required. Admin manage Products In this page the list of added products are displayed and the admin can manage the product by clicking on the manage icon and can also delete the product by clicking on the delete icon. Manage Order: In this page the admin can see the order and can modify the status of the delivery of the order. Clicking on Order Info will give the complete order details including how the payment is made, list of items purchased, total amount paid etc. Clicking on manage will provide the option of editing the status. Change Password: In this page the admin can change his password by typing new password field and retype password field, and clicking on the save button. Log Out Every form have the log out link on the top right corner when clicked on that link then the admin is logged out from that account. Store Admin Module : Login: The store admin can login to check the orders , products for particular category. Manage Order: In this page the admin can see the order and can modify the status of the delivery of the order. Clicking on Order Info will give the complete order details including how the payment is made, list of items purchased, total amount paid etc. Clicking on manage will provide the option of editing the status. Products In this page the list of added products are displayed and the admin can manage the product by clicking on the manage icon and can also delete the product by clicking on the delete icon. Add new Products In this page the admin can add the product providing the details that are required for adding a new product. The fields in that page are selection of the category giving the product name, image , video , cost and description of the product. And there is a check box called Active if it is checked then that particular product will be displayed on the product page under selected category and if it is not checked then the product will not be displayed. After that admin just needs to click on the save button. Then the page is redirect to the list of products under that particular store. Even the iStore admin can also add the new products if required. Log Out Every form have the log out link on the top right corner when clicked on that link then the admin is logged out from that account. Customer Module Home Page Home page is the initial page of the Website. In this page on the top right corner there are four links they are Home, Products, about us and Contact us. By clicking on the about us link the page is forwarded to the about us page. If clicked on the products or contact us they forward to their respective pages. On the left side of the home page there is a panel for login in t

Actions Of The Government And The Increase In Prices :: essays research papers

Actions of the Government and The Increase in Prices   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The United States economy is currently producing at a level of full employment in long-run equilibrium. The government then decides to increase taxes and to reduce government spending in an effort to balance the budget. The results of the actions taken by the government is the decrease of real GDP. When taxes are increased that the amount of disposable income that is available to consumers is lowered. This lowered level of disposable income leads to a decrease in consumption spending as well as a decrease in savings. This decrease in consumer and government spending causes the total spending to decrease by a multiplied amount, As a result of the decrease in total spending the aggregate demand decreases and the aggregate demand curve shifts to the left. This decrease in consumer and government spending also causes businesses to have a surplus of inventories. At this point the output is greater than spending and as a result prices begin to fall. Because of the surplus of goods and falling prices consumption becomes more desirable to consumers and the level of consumer spending rises. The fall in prices causes business to become less profitable and producers decrease the level of production. This results in the decrease of the aggregate quantity supplied to decrease. This continues until aggregate quantity demanded equal the aggregate quantity supplied and a period of short- run equilibrium is established. The real GDP and the price level have both decreased from the original long-run equilibrium level and the economy is operating under the full employment level. At this point the U.S. economy is at a recessionary gap and a monetary policy must be used to pull the economy from the current recession.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are three options that the Federal Reserve has to try and end the current recession. The federal funds rate could be lowered, the discount to banks could be lowered, or open market operations could be used. The most effective of these three options is the use of expansionary monetary policy through open market operations. The first step in this option is for the Federal Reserve to start to purchase bonds from consumers. As the Federal Reserve begins to buy these bonds back the bond prices are increased to make the selling of these bonds more attractive to consumers. When the Federal Reserve purchases a bond from a consumer a check is issued to the seller for the agreed price. This higher bond prices also lowers interest rates. The seller then deposits this check into his/her bank. This action increases deposits in the

Reign of Fire :: Reign of Fire Essays

Reign of Fire Early this morning while rummaging through my sock drawer, I found the 32nd book of Proverbs, magically placed there by God, in a historical advent. This chapter proves the bible to be true, as it delivers divine prophecy about the movie Reign of Fire. God says "yo, yo, yo. What be goin down, ma fuckin' peeps?" (he's learning Ebonics, but not very good at it). Also, your great-grandmother ended up in hell. He just thought you'd like to know. 32 Health and sustaining abundance who can find? 2 These are worth far more than gold and jewels. They are missing in this time, after the 1st (who was the last) found the Earth, and the time of man was stunted, consumed in a Reign of Fire. 4 Through trials you have taught us much Oh Lord; Though you tease with many, in the end it was only one. 6 He who is American always has the bigger penis. The Dragon can flame millions but never the hero. 8 When hunting dragons, always bring a battle axe. The only movie worse than Triple X is Nothing But Trouble. 10Now more than ever the world needs an endless supply of Flamethrowers He who is not American sometimes has the bigger penis.(a)* 12 If you can eat ashes, you can fart females.(b)** No movie is worse than Triple X.(c)*** 14Also the age old question is answered: Can we make a really sentimental and tired action movie *without* a major love angle? Indeed, it is done. Accomplishment to humanity it is, that so much can go into making so little. v11 (a)* - While appearing to be a contradiction of verse 6, it actually isn't. Verse 11 can still be true if there is no American around. Infact, Verse 11 must be true as in any situation where no American is around, then "he who is not American" will necessarily have the bigger penis. So, the next time a skeptic approaches you with this "contradiction", tell him or her to kindly eat a dick. v12 (b)** - On the surface, this seems to be meaningless nonsense which has nothing to do with reality. But obviously alot of people believe this shit, so that cannot be the case. In fact, this verse actually has logical evidence to support it. The first dragon was the only male, and originally the only one around.

O.B Case Studies

|VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND JOB SATISFACTION | LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Contrast terminal and instrumental values 2. List the dominant values in today’s workforce 3. Identify the five value dimensions of national culture 4. Contrast the three components of an attitude 5. Summarize the relationship between attitudes and behavior 6. Identify the role that consistency plays in attitudes 7. State the relationship between job satisfaction and behavior 8.Identify four employee responses to dissatisfaction CHAPTER OVERVIEW Why is it important to know an individual’s values? Although they do not have a direct impact on behavior, values strongly influence a person’s attitudes. Knowledge of an individual’s value system can provide insight into his/her attitudes. Given that people’s values differ, managers can use the Rokeach Value Survey to assess potential employees and determine if their values align with the dominant values of the organization. An employee’s performance and satisfaction are likely to be higher if his/her values fit well with the organization.For instance, the person who places high importance on imagination, independence, and freedom is likely to be poorly matched with an organization that seeks conformity from its employees. Managers are more likely to appreciate, evaluate positively, and allocate rewards to employees who â€Å"fit in,† and employees are more likely to be satisfied if they perceive that they do fit. This argues for management to strive during the selection of new employees to find job candidates who not only have the ability, experience, and motivation to perform, but also a value system that is ompatible with the organization’s. Managers should be interested in their employees’ attitudes because attitudes give warnings of potential problems and because they influence behavior. Satisfied and committed employees, for inst ance, have lower rates of turnover and absenteeism. Given that managers want to keep resignations and absences down—especially among their more productive employees—they will want to do those things that will generate positive job attitudes.Managers should also be aware that employees will try to reduce cognitive dissonance. More importantly, dissonance can be managed. If employees are required to engage in activities that appear inconsistent to them or are at odds with their attitudes, the pressures to reduce the resulting dissonance are lessened when the employee perceives that the dissonance is externally imposed and is beyond his/her control or if the rewards are significant enough to offset the dissonance. WEB EXERCISESAt the end of each chapter of this instructor’s manual, you will find suggested exercises and ideas for researching the WWW on OB topics. The exercises â€Å"Exploring OB Topics on the Web† are set up so that you can simply photocopy t he pages, distribute them to your class, make assignments accordingly. You may want to assign the exercises as an out-of-class activity or as lab activities with your class. Within the lecture notes the graphic will note that there is a WWW activity to support this material.The chapter opens introducing Marge Savage, a Microsoft marketing analyst who is gathering information about the â€Å"Nexters† generation—people born after 1977. They are the first group of people to never know a world without computers and the Internet. She found that this group values integrity, teamwork, moral support, responsibility, and freedom to pursue their dreams. They want to work for a company that supports their needs, and where they can have significant influence in shaping society.They see technology and the Internet as a major force for changing the world—good news for Microsoft. CHAPTER OUTLINE |Values |Notes: | |Values represent basic convictions that â€Å"a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or | | |socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. | | | | | |There is a judgmental element of what is right, good, or desirable. | | | | | |Values have both content and intensity attributes. | | | | |The content attribute says that a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important. | | |The intensity attribute specifies how important it is. | | |Ranking an individual’s values in terms of their intensity equals that person’s value system. | | | | |Values are not generally fluid and flexible. They tend to be relatively stable and enduring. | | | | | |A significant portion of the values we hold is established in our early years—from parents, teachers, friends, | | |and others. | |The process of questioning our values, of course, may result in a change, but more often, our questioning acts | | |to reinforce the values we hold. | | |A. Importance of Values | | |1.Values lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation because they influence our | | |perceptions. | | | | | |2. Individuals enter organizations with notions of what is right and wrong with which they interpret behaviors| | |or outcomes—at times this can cloud objectivity and rationality. | | | | |3. Values generally influence attitudes and behavior. | | |B. Types of Values | | |1.Rokeach Value Survey (Exhibit 3-1) | | | | | |It consists of two sets of values, with each set containing 18 individual value items. | | |One set—terminal values—refers to desirable end-states of existence, the goals that a person would like to | | |achieve during his/her lifetime. | |The other—instrumental values—refers to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values. | | | | | | | | |2. Several studies confirm that the RVS values vary among groups. | | | | |People in the same occupations or categories t end to hold similar values. | | |Contemporary Work Cohorts | | |1.The unique value of different cohorts is that the U. S. workforce can be segmented by the era they entered | | |the workforce. (Exhibit 3-3) | | |Contemporary Work Cohorts (cont. ) |Notes: | |2.Veterans—Workers who entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s | | |Influenced by the Great Depression and World War II | | |Believe in hard work | | |Tend to be loyal to their employer | | |Terminal values: Comfortable life and family security | | | | | |3. Boomers—Employees who entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid-1980s | | | | | |Influenced heavily by John F.Kennedy, the civil rights and feminist movements, the Beatles, the Vietnam War, | | |and baby-boom competition | | |Distrust authority, but have a high emphasis on achievement and material success | | |Organizations who employ them are vehicles for their careers | | |Terminal values: sense of accomplishment and social recognition | | | | | |4.Xers—began to enter the workforce from the mid-1980s | | | | | |Shaped by globalization, two-career parents, MTV, AIDS, and computers | | |Value flexibility, life options, and achievement of job satisfaction | | |Family and relationships are important and enjoy team-oriented work | | |Money is important, but will trade off for increased leisure time | | |Less willing to make personal sacrifices for employers than previous generations | | |Terminal values: true friendship, happiness, and pleasure | | | | | |5. Nexters—most recent entrants into the workforce. | | | | |Grew up in prosperous times, have high expectation, believe in themselves, and confident in their ability to | | |succeed | | |Never-ending search for ideal job; see nothing wrong with job-hopping | | |Seek financial success | | |Enjoy team work, but are highly self-reliant | | |Terminal values: freedom and comfortable life | | | | | |Individuals’ values dif fer, but tend to reflect the societal values of the period in which they grew up. This | | |can be a valuable aid in explaining and predicting behavior. Employees in their 60s, for instance, are more | | |likely to accept authority than coworkers 15 years younger. | | | | | |7. Workers under 35 are more likely than the other groups to balk at having to work overtime or weekends, | | |and are more prone to leave a job in mid-career to pursue another that provides more leisure time. | | | | OB IN THE NEWS – American Workers Rethink Priorities Values are relatively permanent, but dramatic shocks can realign them. For example, the terrorists’ attacks on September 11 may have significantly reprioritized many Americans’ values. The initial response to the terrorist attacks for many people was a reevaluation of choices related to jobs, family, and career success. In some cases, this led to a rethinking of career paths, cutting back on grueling schedules, and deciding to pursue work that might pay less but seem more meaningful.For instance, in California, young workers who once talked of dot-com millions are now asking: â€Å"Is it worth it? † Some employees appear less concerned about putting in face time, making deadlines, and getting on the fast track. They seem more concerned about family and worry less about time at the office. CEOs say some of their employees are talking more earnestly about work/life balance, mortality, and other questions once considered taboo in the office. Said one consultant, â€Å"The event de-emphasized what most people value—the money and the luxuries. People are questioning what’s really important; they’re questioning work. It’s happening across the board. † It has now been more than a year since the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington D. C.That provides a more meaningful perspective on whether this event has had long-term implications on workplace values, or whet her any reprioritizing was merely a knee-jerk reaction to a traumatic event, followed by a return to â€Å"business as usual. † Do you think a significant portion of Americans have permanently reprioritized their values as a result of 9-11? Class Exercise: 1. Have students break into small groups to discuss the question: â€Å"Do you think a significant portion of Americans have permanently reprioritized their values as a result of 9-11? † Ask them to list examples of why or why not they think the way they do. 2. As a class, share what was discussed in the small groups. 3. Ask if they think America’s values have changed, or were they just reawakened? 4.Ask if they think organizations’ values have changed or reprioritized as a result of the events. 5. Ask them to relate this question to themselves. Have they reprioritized their lives as a result of the 9-11 events? (They may not want to share this information with the entire class—its purpose is jus t to get them thinking. ) |A. Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior |Notes: | |Many people think there has been a decline in business ethics since the late 1970s. The four-stage model of | | |work cohort values might explain this perception. Exhibit 3-2) | | | | | |Managers consistently report the action of bosses as the most important factor influencing ethical and unethical| | |behavior in the organization. | | | | | |Through the mid-1970s, the managerial ranks were dominated by Veterans whose loyalty was to their employer; | | |their decisions were made in terms of what was best for the employer. | | | | |Boomers entered the workforce at this time and by the 1990’s had risen into the majority of management | | |positions. Loyalty was to their careers. Self-centered values would be consistent with a decline in ethical | | |values. Did this really happen? | | | | | |Recent entrants to the workforce—Xers—are now moving into middle management. Loyalty is to relationships, | | |therefore they may be more likely to consider the ethical implications of their actions on others around them. | |Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the Ethical Dilemma: Is it a Bribe or a Gift? Exercise found in the text. The purpose of the exercise is to provide the opportunity for students to understand that ethical situations are not always black or white and must be given consideration as business decisions are made. |B. Values Across Cultures |Notes: | |Values differ across cultures, therefore, understanding these differences helps to explain and to predict | | |behavior of employees from different countries.One of the most widely referenced approaches for analyzing | | |variations among cultures has been done by Geert Hofstede. | | | | | |Hofstede’s A framework for assessing cultures; five value dimensions of national culture (Exhibit 3-4): | | | | | |a.Power distance: | | | | | |The degree to which people i n a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed | | |unequally. | | | | | |Individualism versus collectivism: | | | | |Individualism is the degree to which people in a country prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of | | |groups. | | |Collectivism equals low individualism. | | | | | |Quantity of life versus quality of life: | | | | | |Quantity of life is the degree to which values such as assertiveness, the acquisition of money and material | | |goods, and competition prevail. | |Quality of life is the degree to which people value relationships and show sensitivity and concern for the | | |welfare of others. | | | | | |Uncertainty avoidance: | | | | | |The degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations. | | | | |Long-term versus short-term orientation: | | | | | |Long-term orientations look to the future and value thrift and persistence. | | |Short-term orientation values the past and present and emphasizes respect for tradition and fulfilling social | | |obligations. | | | | |Conclusions: | | | | | |Asian countries were more collectivist than individualistic. US ranked highest on individualism. German and | | |Hong Kong ranked highest on quality of life; Russia and The Netherlands were low. China and Hong Kong had a | | |long-term orientation; France and US were low. | | | | |3. Hofstede’s work is the basic framework for assessing cultures. However, it is nearly 30 years old. In | | |1993, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) has begun updating this research | | |with date from 825 organizations and 62 countries. | | | | | |a.GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures: | | | | | |Assertiveness: The extent to which a society encourages people to be tough, confrontational, assertive, and | | |competitive versus modest and tender | | | | |Future Orientation: The extent to which a society encourages and rewards future-oriented b ehaviors such as | | |planning, investing in the future and delaying gratification | | | | | |Gender differentiation: The extent to which a society maximized gender role differences | | |Values Across Cultures (cont. |Notes: | | | | |Uncertainly avoidance: Society’s reliance on social norms and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of | | |future events | | | | | |Power distance: The degree to which members of a society expect power to be unequally shared | | | | | |Individualism/Collectivism: The degree to which individuals are encouraged by societal institutions to be | | |integrated into groups within organizations and society | | | | | |In-group collectivism: The extent to which society’s members take pride in membership in small groups such as | | |their families and circles of close friends, and the organizations where they are employed | | | | | Performance orientation: The degree to which society encourages and rewards group members for performance | | |improvement and excellence | | | | | |Humane orientation: The degree to which a society encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, | | |altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others | | | | | |b. Conclusion: The GLOBE study had extended Hofstede’s work rather than replaced it. It confirms Hofstede’s | | |five dimensions are still valid and provides updated measures of where countries are on each dimension. For | | |example, the U. S. in the 70s led the world in individualism—today, it is in the mid-ranks of countries. | |Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the Team Exercise: Challenges in Negotiating with Chinese Executives found in the text. The purpose of this exercise is to give the students an opportunity to develop awareness of how to effectively work with another culture when doing business. |C. Implications for OB | | |Americans have developed organizational behavior within domestic contexts—mor e than 80 percent of the articles | | |published in journals were by Americans. | | | | |Follow-up studies continue to confirm the lack of cross-cultural considerations in management and OB research. | | |From a cultural perspective this means: | | | | | |Not all OB theories and concepts are universally applicable. | |You should take into consideration cultural values when trying to understand the behavior of people in different| | |countries. | | |Attitudes | | |Attitudes are evaluative statements that are either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people, or | | |events. | | | | | |Attitudes are not the same as values, but the two are interrelated. | | | | |Three components of an attitude: | | | | | |Cognition | | |Affect | | |Behavior | | | | |The belief that â€Å"discrimination is wrong† is a value statement and an example of the cognitive component of an | | |attitude. | | |Attitudes (cont. ) |Notes: | |Value statements set the stage for the more critical part of an attitude—its affective component. Affect is the | | |emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. Example: â€Å"I don’t like Jon because he discriminates again | | |minorities. | | | | | |The behavioral component of an attitude refers to an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or | | |something. Example: â€Å"I chose to avoid Jon because he discriminates. † | | | | | |Viewing attitudes as made up of three components helps with understanding of the potential relationship between | | |attitudes and behavior, however, when we refer to attitude essentially we mean the affect part of the three | | |components. | | | | |In contrast to values, your attitudes are less stable. Advertisements are directed at changing your attitudes | | |and are often successful. | | | | | |In organizations, attitudes are important because they affect job behavior. | | |A. Types of Attitudes | | |OB focuses our attention on a very limited number o f job-related attitudes.Most of the research in OB has been |Notes: | |concerned with three attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment. | | | | | |Job satisfaction | | | | | |Definition: It is an individual’s general attitude toward his/her job. | | | | |A high level of job satisfaction equals positive attitudes toward the job and vice versa. | | | | | |Employee attitudes and job satisfaction are frequently used interchangeably. | | | | | |Often when people speak of â€Å"employee attitudes† they mean â€Å"employee job satisfaction. | | | | | |Job involvement | | | | | |A workable definition: the measure of the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his/her job | | |and considers his/her perceived performance level important to self-worth. | | | | | |High levels of job involvement is thought to result in fewer absences and lower resignation rates. | | | | | |Job involvement more consistently predicts turnover than absenteeism. | | | | |Organizational commitment | | | | | |Definition: A state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to| | |maintain membership in the organization. | | | | |Research evidence demonstrates negative relationships between organizational commitment and both absenteeism and| | |turnover. | | | | | |An individual’s level of organizational commitment is a better indicator of turnover than the far more | | |frequently used job satisfaction predictor because it is a more global and enduring response to the organization| | |as a whole than is job satisfaction. | | | | |This evidence, most of which is more than two decades old, needs to be qualified to reflect the changing | | |employee-employer relationship. | | |A. Types of Attitudes (cont. ) |Notes: | |Organizational commitment is probably less important as a job-related attitude than it once was because the | | |unwritten â€Å"loyalty† contract i n place when this research was conducted is no longer in place. | | | | |In its place, we might expect â€Å"occupational commitment† to become a more relevant variable because it better | | |reflects today’s fluid workforce. | | Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the exercise Point-Counter Point: Mangers Can Create Satisfied Employees exercise found in the text. The purpose of the exercise is to replace popularly held notions with research-based conclusions. |B. Attitudes and Consistency |Notes: | |People sometimes change what they say so it does not contradict what they do. | | | | |Research has generally concluded that people seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes | | |and their behavior. | | | | | |Individuals seek to reconcile divergent attitudes and align their attitudes and behavior so they appear rational| | |and consistent. | | | | |When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to return the individual to an equilibrium state where | | |attitudes and behavior are again consistent, by altering either the attitudes or the behavior, or by developing | | |a rationalization for the discrepancy. | | |C. Cognitive Dissonance Theory | | |Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s, proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance, seeking to explain the linkage | | |between attitudes and behavior. He argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals | | |will attempt to reduce the dissonance. | | | | |Dissonance means â€Å"an inconsistency. † | | | | | |Cognitive dissonance refers to â€Å"any incompatibility that an individual might perceive between two or more of | | |his/her attitudes, or between his/her behavior and attitudes. | | | | | |No individual can completely avoid dissonance. | | | | | |The desire to reduce dissonance would be determined by: | | | | | |The importance of the elements creating the dissonance. | | |The degree of infl uence the individual believes he/she has over the elements. | | |The rewards that may be involved in dissonance. | | | | |Importance: If the elements creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant, the pressure to correct this | | |imbalance will be low. | | | | | |Influence: If the dissonance is perceived as an uncontrollable result, they are less likely to be receptive to | | |attitude change. While dissonance exists, it can be rationalized and justified. | | | | |Rewards: The inherent tension in high dissonance tends to be reduced with high rewards. | | | | | |Moderating factors suggest that individuals will not necessarily move to reduce dissonance—or consistency. | | |C. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (cont. ) |Notes: | |Organizational implications | | | | |Greater predictability of the propensity to engage in attitude and behavioral change | | |The greater the dissonance—after it has been moderated by importance, choice, and rewards factors—the gr eater | | |the pressures to reduce it. | | |D. Measuring the A-B Relationship | | |Early research on attitudes and common sense assumed a causal relationship to behavior. In the late 1960s, this| | |assumed relationship between attitudes and behavior (A-B) was challenged. Recent research has demonstrated that| | |attitudes significantly predict future behavior. | | | | |The most powerful moderators: | | | | | |Importance | | |Specificity | | |Accessibility | | |Social pressures | | |Direct experience | | | | | |Importance: Reflects fundamental values, self-interest, or identification with individuals or groups that a | | |person values. | | | | | |Specificity: The more specific the attitude and the more specific the behavior, the stronger the link between | | |the two. | | | | |Accessibility: Attitudes that are easily remembered are more likely to predict behavior than attitudes that are | | |not accessible in memory. | | | | | |Social pressures: Discrepancies between att itudes and behavior are more likely to occur where social pressures | | |to behave in certain ways hold exceptional power. | | | | |Direct experience: The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers to an | | |individual’s direct personal experience. | | |E. Self-perception theory | | |Researchers have achieved still higher correlations by pursuing whether or not behavior influences attitudes. | | | | |Self-perception theory argues that attitudes are used to make sense out of an action that has already occurred | | |rather than devices that precede and guide action. Example: I’ve had this job for 10 years, no one has forced | | |me to stay, so I must like it! | | | | | |Contrary to cognitive dissonance theory, attitudes are just casual verbal statements; they tend to create | | |plausible answers for what has already occurred. | | | | |While the traditional attitude-behavior relationship is generally positive, the behavior- attitude relationship | | |is stronger particularly when attitudes are vague and ambiguous or little thought has been given to it | | |previously. | | |An Application: Attitude Surveys | | |The most popular method for getting information about employee attitudes is through attitude surveys. See | | |Exhibit 3-5) | | | | | |Using attitude surveys on a regular basis provides managers with valuable feedback on how employees perceive | | |their working conditions. Managers present the employee with set statements or questions to obtain specific | | |information. | | | | |Policies and practices that management views as objective and fair may be seen as inequitable by employees in | | |general or by certain groups of employees and can lead to negative attitudes about the job and the organization. | | | | | |Employee behaviors are often based on perceptions, not reality. Often employees do not have objective data from | | |which to base their perceptions. | | | | |The use of regular attitude surveys can alert management to potential problems and employees’ intentions early | | |so that action can be taken to prevent repercussions. | | |G. Attitudes and Workforce Diversity | | |A survey of U. S. organizations with 100 or more employees found that 47 percent or so of them sponsored some | | |sort of diversity training. | | | | |These diversity programs include a self-evaluation phase where people are pressed to examine themselves and to | | |confront ethnic and cultural stereotypes they might hold. This is followed by discussion with people from | | |diverse groups. | | | | | |Additional activities designed to change attitudes nclude arranging for people to do volunteer work in | | |community or social service centers in order to meet face to face with individuals and groups from diverse | | |backgrounds, and using exercises that let participants feel what it is like to be different. | | |Job Satisfaction | | |Measuring Job Satisfaction | | |Job satisfa ction is â€Å"an individual’s general attitude toward his/her job. | | | | | |Jobs require interaction with co-workers and bosses, following organizational rules and policies, meeting | | |performance standards, living with working conditions that are often less than ideal, and the like. This means | | |that an employee’s assessment of how satisfied or dissatisfied he or she is with his/her job is a complex | | |summation of a number of discrete job elements. | | | | |The two most widely used approaches are a single global rating and a summation score made up of a number of job | | |facets. | | | | | |a. The single global rating method is nothing more than asking individuals to respond to one question, such as| | |â€Å"All things considered, how satisfied are you with your job? | | |Measuring Job Satisfaction (cont. ) |Notes: | | A summation of job facets is more sophisticated: | | | | | |It identifies key elements in a job and asks for the employee’s feelings about each one ranked on a standardized| | |scale. | | | | |Typical factors that would be included are the nature of the work, supervision, present pay, promotion | | |opportunities, and relations with co-workers. | | | | | |Comparing these approaches, simplicity seems to work as well as complexity. Comparisons of one-question global | | |ratings with the summation-of-job-factors method indicate both are valid. | |How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs? | | |Most people are satisfied with their jobs in the developed countries surveyed. | | | | | |However, there has been a decline in job satisfaction since the early 1990s. In the US nearly an eight percent | | |drop in the 90s. Surprisingly those last years were one’s of growth and economic expansion. | | | | |What factors might explain the decline despite growth: | | | | | |Increased productivity through heavier employee workloads and tighter deadlines | | |Employees feeling they have less control over thei r work | | | | | |While some segments of the market are more satisfied than others, they tend to be higher paid, higher skilled | | |jobs which gives workers more control and challenges. | | Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the exercise found in the MYTH OR SCIENCE: How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs? box found in the text.The purpose of the exercise is to replace popularly held notions with research-based conclusions. MYTH OR SCIENCE? – â€Å"Happy Workers Are Productive Workers† This statement is generally false. The myth that â€Å"happy workers are productive workers† developed in the 1930s and 1940s, due to the Hawthorne studies at Western Electric. A careful review of the research indicates that, if there is a positive relationship between happiness (i. e. , satisfaction) and productivity, the correlations are low; no more than two percent of the variance in output can be accounted for by employee satisfaction. The evidence, however, is for the reverse—productive workers are likely to be happy workers.That is, productivity leads to satisfaction rather than the other way around. If the organization rewards productivity, these rewards, in turn, increase your level of satisfaction with the job. Class Exercise 1. Brainstorm with students about situations where they knew workers/employees were unhappy with the company or their jobs, but still did a reasonably good job. Perhaps have them share insights into their own feelings about their school, or a particular class they disliked but still tried very hard. 2. Discuss why someone who is unhappy with his/her job might work hard at it and do good work. 3. Why would someone who is happy with his/her job not perform at a higher level than the disgruntled worker? 4.Students should come to realize that most effort comes from internal drive, not external motivation. As a result, a highly internally motivated individual might perform well in any circumstance whereas his/her organizational environment would not positively affect a non-internally motivated individual. |C. The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance |Notes: | |Managers’ interest in job satisfaction tends to center on its effect on employee performance. Much research has| | |been done on the impact of job satisfaction on employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. | | | | |Satisfaction and productivity:

Analysis of Two Sonata-Form Piano Movements

Beethoven and Haydn provide several examples of sonatas. Two piano sonatas in particular are Beethoven’s Piano Sonata No. 5 in C minor, and Haydn’s Piano Sonata No. 49 in C-sharp minor. Haydn wrote primarily in the mid to late 1700’s, while Beethoven wrote about a hundred years later.For that reason, it is likely (and, in fact, true in these examples) that Haydn’s style would be more typical of ‘normal’ sonata form. The Beethoven sonata begins with a short A theme (which crashes staccato style between piano and forte), followed by a softer, more lyrical B theme.There is no transitional material between the A and B themes; the A theme simply ends and the B theme begins in the next measure. There is only a brief pause between them. The exposition repeats, and lasts unusually long before the transition and development begin. The transition is very brief, only a few measures, and the development is also fairly brief. The recapitulation begins shor tly afterwards. The sonata form is rather unclear throughout the piece – it is not a standard example by any means. The A theme is solidly in C minor, but the B theme is major.It is not the dominant, which is extremely unusual; it is probably in V/iv. It is difficult to tell what key it is in during the B theme as there is no transition, which is traditional, and it is not in the dominant. The recapitulation of this movement is two simple chords that are struck in staccato fashion, similar to the A theme material. The chords sound like V-I, which is a standard ending. The tonic-dominant relationship in this movement isn’t as strong as it would ordinarily be in a sonata; transitions are unclear or unused; keys are unusual.This is an odd example of sonata form. The Haydn sonata is a much more typical example of sonata form. It begins with an A theme in the exposition in C# minor, and moves, with a brief transition, into a B theme in the dominant. The A theme is a contras t between a forte staccato section, and a piano lyrical section, very similar to the Beethoven piece. The B theme is in general more lyrical and flowing than the A theme although it has staccato moments as well. The motives are very obvious, so it is easy to tell when the themes return, which they do throughout the movement.The exposition repeats. Afterwards, a development begins, with a very brief â€Å"x† section at the beginning as transitional material. The development contains a sequence in the middle of it, and the piece goes through several key changes there, landing on a V7 – I to finish the sequence. This sequence repeats later in the movement as well, just before the beginning of the recapitulation. The sequence is characterized by the emphasis of the bass in half notes with sixteenth notes playing over the top. It moves primarily in major seconds, but not exclusively.The A section repeats most often, more so than the B section. The A theme repeats very defin itely again at the start of the closing. The transitional material is brief and remains in the tonic, and the B theme is in the tonic. There is a short section at the end that is a bit different from the A or B theme that may be considered a coda. All in all, this is a very predictable, typical sonata form movement. These two movements are similar in that they are both sonata form movements, that they both have two distinctive themes, and that these themes vary between legato and staccato styles.However, Haydn, who composed during the classical period, adhered much more strictly to traditional sonata form, including proper transitions and key changes. The sections of the form are extremely easy to pick out and are in typical proportion to one another, with the development lasting the longest. Beethoven, who composed during the Romantic era, obscured the form more than Haydn did, so that it bore resemblance to sonata theme but was unique in several ways. The examples together show a progression in the compositional styles through the musical periods.